Do read the above message. It is nearly two years since this website was last updated. At that time it was stated that, in reorganizing my websites, my intention was to divide the Physics theme from the Technology theme, though both have common ground concerning the Energy topic. This ENERGY SCIENCE site became the one dealing with Technology, extracting much from the site operated for several years past which had the URL www.energyscience.co.uk. The latter site was replaced by these web pages having the URL www.energyscience.org.uk. The Physics web pages are now to be found on the separate PHYSICS site having the URL www.aspden.org. To visit that site press PHYSICS.

Pages 94-107 of the book:

THIS IS NOT YET PREPARED FOR WEB PRESENTATION



THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION

The book ‘THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION’ was published in 1966. Officially it is out of print but several copies remain in the author’s possession and, so long as stocks last, the book will be sent with the author’s compliments and at the author’s expense to anyone who can affirm having purchased a copy of Aether Science Papers and requests a copy by E-Mail enquiry to:

All that is requested in return is that recipients will be sufficiently serious in their interest in the physics of gravitation to debate with their colleagues, particularly academic colleagues, the issues which this aether-based theory raises.

Essentially, the broader and up-to-date spectrum of the author’s unified field theory, is the subject of 1996 text. For order information see Aether Science Papers. The 14 papers, reproduced in A4 format from the scientific periodicals in which they were first published, constitute the main section of the book. The front section of the book is a 68 page commentary entitled ‘The Creative Vacuum’. In view of the importance of making scientists aware of this work, it has been decided to publish the opening 68 pages here in these Web pages.

• Hello….My Name is HAROLD ASPDEN and I live in SOUTHAMPTON, HAMPSHIRE, ENGLAND.

• I am a RETIRED CORPORATE PATENT DIRECTOR and have much to disclose concerning ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY.

Nature has creative power. You may believe there was a Big Bang and that our universe was created in an instant at the beginning of time. If you are right then you subscribe to the philosophy of decay, as energy is degraded and its entropy increases. In your wisdom you see no point in seeking out alternative energy sources which imply scientific principles contrary to man’s experience to date. Having earned my living from the fruits of invention, as someone trained to evaluate and protect inventions in a highly technical corporate environment I do not believe that we know all there is to know about Nature’s way of recycling energy in its role as a Creator.

I believe that the 21st century will witness a revolution on the energy front as man contrives to survive and ultimately win through in the fight to stave off planetary pollution. These Web pages are my personal contribution to that effort. I hope you will be interested in what I have to say. My approach is simple and direct in that I have founded my case on a study of Nature’s most basic creation, namely the particle which accounts for 99.9% of the mass of the hydrogen atom, the proton. That is why I have a special interest in the emerging technology we call ‘cold fusion’. However, the story I will tell is rooted in the spin-off from my early Ph.D. research on the anomalous loss of energy encountered in all of the world’s electrical power systems. Hidden in that mystery is a secret concerning Nature’s way of regenerating in an electrical form, energy already shed as heat, before that heat is absorbed into the quantum underworld which governs the proton creation process.

Headline Note: Cold Fusion Index: The Patent Scene

Keynote Address: The Repression of Inventions

Tutorial Notes: Ten Short Lessons on Energy Science

Lectures: The Aspden Lectures

Essays: Energy Science Essays

2000 Series: Energy Science Essays

Research Forum: Energy Science Research Topics

Questions: Energy Science Questions

Research Notes: Topical Comments on Energy Science

Feedback Notes: Responses to Reader’s Comments

Bibliography:Dr. Aspden’s Patents, Papers, Books and Energy Science Reports

The URL of these Internet Web pages is:

http://www.energyscience.org.uk

• Just press on the above link to learn about ‘The Physics of Creation’.

The URL of these Internet Web pages is:

http://www.energyscience.org.uk

OUR ENERGY FUTURE

A Message of Vital Importance

Copyright © 2006, Harold Aspden

This website presents a deliberately concise summary account of something of vital importance to the future of mankind. The world needs a new source of energy, one that is not an exhaustible commodity subject to powerplay as between nations.
Yes, one can dream and then awake to say this is impossible, but I urge those with the necessary skills to heed what I have to say in my three messages below.

First, however, let me introduce myself. My name is Dr. Harold Aspden. I am retired and elderly but have had a lifelong scientific interest in fundamental physics relevant to the energy theme. My 6-year university education in U.K. was at Manchester University and Cambridge University (Trinity College). My 33-year working career in U.K. comprised 9 years with English Electric and 24 years with IBM. Though having high technical qualifications (see below), being interested in the specialized field of protecting inventions pertaining to electrical engineering, I became a Chartered Patent Agent and later a European Patent Attorney. My last 19 years with IBM were spent as Director of IBM’s European Patent Operations. This was followed, in my early retirement, by 9 years as a Visiting Senior Research Fellow at Southampton University and thereafter my scientific interest has been a private pursuit evidenced by my writings as on this and my related websites. My formal qualifications are:
B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., F.I.E.E., F.I.Mech.E., C.Phys., M. Inst.P., C. Sci., Wh.Sc.

Message No. 1: Physicists have come to recognize that there exists a quantum underworld alive with energy and permeating all space. However, their related research aims merely at probing experimentally the spectrum of elementary particles that have a transient existence as a product of that energy activity. The reward they seek is recognition should new particles be discovered and, by their properties, reveal connections with other particles that help in formulating a new theory or verifying an existing theory. Sadly, they do not see that quantum underworld as a potential source of energy that we can harness. Nor have they understood how most of the energy shed in creating matter formed the elementary particle which bears the name proton and which, together with the electron, constitutes the hydrogen atom.

There is also a secret they have yet to fathom. It is the effect of creating a radial electric field centred on electrical charge around which that quantum underworld can develop a state of spin that causes it to shed energy. In the presence of a radial electric field set up by an electrically charge body, whatever constitutes that quantum underworld that permeates all space shares a motion like that of sequence dancers who keep in step with one another as they move around the dance floor, a synchronous motion, which, in the presence of that radial electric field can only be held if a secondary motion develops around an axis centred in that radial field.

How else could the Sun spinning about its own axis have come into existence? Here we have gravity attracting hydrogen atoms and pulling them so closely together that ionization occurs, meaning freeing some electrons from their proton bonding, and so, because the mass of a proton is very much greater than that of the electron, creating a Sun having a body that is positively charged sitting within an outer shell of negative electron charge. Two free protons experience a mutual rate of gravitational acceleration that is 1836 times that experienced by the interaction of two electrons. The body of the Sun, therefore, has a uniform mass density and a uniform positive charge density enclosed within a compensating negative charge at its surface. This is because gravitational compaction forces balance the expansion forces attributable to electrostatic repulsion. It further means the presence of a radial electric field within the body of the Sun and, in turn, owing to the effect of this field on the space medium of the quantum underworld, this induces a state of spin accompanied by release of energy from that medium to feed the kinetic energy of that spin.

In depth analysis of the physics involved, meaning the effect of the resulting radial electric field on that quantum underworld, then allows one to calculate the resulting rate of spin and thereby understand how the solar system was created.

So, if the reader is a physicist, here is the way forward and full guidance on this is to be found on my parallel website www.aspden.org or in a new book of mine entitled Creation – The Physical Truth, that will be published in the near future. However, if the reader is not a physicist but has the technological aptitudes of the university-trained electrical engineer then it is Message No. 2 below that warrants attention.

Message No. 2: If it were possible to generate electrical energy by tapping an omnipresent medium it is surely to be expected that the occasional natural phenomenon might already have hinted at this possibility. Consider, therefore, the thunderball, a glowing spherical object sometimes seen, especially following a lightning storm. It appears aethereal in the sense that it can move unimpeded through matter, yet remains an enigma, an unsolved mystery of record in the annals of science. Lightning strokes are high current discharges which, as electrical engineers well know, can develop a ‘pinch effect’ squeezing the electron-carried current into a filamentary flow within a cylindrical channel of positively charged air. That implies a radial electric field, a pulsating radial electrical field if the discharge surges, a sure recipe for something to happen that could form a miniature Sun, the thunderball. So when we look at a thunderball we are looking at a natural phenomenon that has drawn energy from that quantum underworld of space, energy which is then dissipated, but energy shed by a process we can surely harness, once we understand the physics involved.

Scientists lacking the necessary imagination do not seek to understand how the thunderball is created and so they seldom write about it. So here we have something to think about. It is Nature’s message telling us: “Produce a radial electric field, one that pulsates, and you can develop a spin that taps energy from the quantum underworld of space.” As engineers, however, we need to be practical and, if possible, we should avoid trying to replicate a phenomenon that involves powerful electric discharges, if there are better ways in which to proceed.

So now I come to my primary theme in this Message No. 2. It is a brief survey of a few of the claims of record that have declared a mysterious energy gain and have features which I see as relevant to what has been said above. In particular I draw attention to the research findings of four different pioneers in what has come to be termed ‘The Search for Free Energy’, this being the title of a really excellent book by Keith Tutt, published by Simon & Schuster in 2001. Three of these are described in considerable detail in that work. I now ask you to keep in mind my reference to a radial electric field as I mention each of them below and do realize that electrical structures of cylindrical form are a key feature.

Nikola Tesla is famous for his research concerning electromagnetic induction and high voltage solenoidal transformer apparatus (Tesla coils) and he is said to have demonstrated an automobile which derived its power by tapping energy from space. He did not disclose its design details and died leaving us with a mystery. Tesla coils comprise large solenoidal windings concentrically mounted and operate with high voltage pulsations between their cylindrical forms which must produce a pulsating radial electric field between those windings. So, although electromagnetic induction effects are the primary focus of attention, there is here scope for the electrical action described in Message No. 1 above. Tesla may well have stumbled experimentally upon a way of tapping energy from space, but without understanding the true underlying physical process.

Dr. Henry Moray, a pioneer of the 1920-1930 era, demonstrated something which merely needed a kind of antenna, a wire connected from tree tops to earth via electrical apparatus in the boot (trunk) of his automobile. It is said that the latter included several capacitors and that a kilowatt level of power was generated. In this case the automobile merely carried the test apparatus for demonstration at a location remote from a built-up area and any electrical power line interference. No doubt Moray was seeking to follow in Tesla’s footsteps by drawing energy from the Earth’s electric field, known to be measured in hundreds of volts per metre. It is likely that those capacitors were of Leyden jar type configuration, that is cylindrical in structural form, and that the wire linked to tree tops tapped charge at a kilovolt voltage level. However, the output power claimed could surely not have come from that source. Therefore one must assume that Moray used that treetop voltage input merely to prime the voltage across his capacitor electrodes, whilst incorporating some special feature in the operation of his electrical circuit that gave access to the energy of the quantum underworld. Capacitors having concentric electrodes of cylindrical form will, when charged electrically, have a radial electric field in the space between the electrodes. Several capacitors coupled together could give rise to oscillations of charge as between the capacitors and so lead to a pulsating radial electric field. Yet though demonstrating as possible something that should not be possible, a mysterious inflow of energy able to illuminate several light bulbs, Moray could surely not have understood the true physical process that was feeding energy into his apparatus. Again I see this as relevant to what is stated in Message No. 1.

Stan Meyer demonstrated apparatus that included sets of concentric tubular electrodes enclosed in a cylindrical container filled with water, the electrodes being fed by high voltage (5kV) pulses. Combustible gas was generated, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, the burning of which generated far more heat than could be accounted for by the electrical energy input. Energy was being tapped as if from nowhere unless the source was the ambient medium of space itself. Here there was a pulsating radial electric field and electric charge oscillating between different components in Meyer’s apparatus. Meyer did not offer any useful explanation as to the physical process underlying what he could demonstrate but persisted in conveying the message that the invention was wonderful and talking about a multiplicity of applications such as powering automobiles, ships etc. This is the project not mentioned in Keith Tutt’s book. As for the Tesla and Moray projects Meyer’s research was a U.S. based activity. It did, however, attract the interest of a British Admiral, Admiral Tony Griffin who was concerned with the impact of new technology upon the marine industries. Griffin witnessed Meyer’s demonstrations and was interested in its development. Indeed an article on the subject mentioning Admiral Griffin and entitled ‘Free Energy for Ever’ was published in the January 1991 issue of the U.K. magazine Wireless World. The importance of the article was evident from the fact that the Editor of that magazine was the author.

Paul Baumann, a member of a Christian community in a isolated valley high in the Swiss Alps has constructed working free energy devices which have been demonstrated to visitors. The first working prototype was relatively small and included a pair of glass Leyden jars, concentric capacitors. Keith Tutt in his book devotes 30 pages to this subject. The high voltage needed to prime the capacitor operation was generated by a Wimshurst machine driven by the electric power generated. The community has, however, kept design details secret. In spite of such information as is available the underlying physical process governing its operation remains a mystery. Yet I can but feel confident that what I say in my Message No. 1 provides the answer.

Message No. 3: My Message No. 1 has drawn attention to the physical process by which the vast amount of energy needed to create the Sun was extracted from the quantum underworld that permeates all space. My Message No. 2 has drawn attention to the reported efforts of just some of the several energy research pioneers who actually demonstrated apparatus that, contrary to accepted scientific principles, drew energy from a mystery source. My Message No. 3, based on recognizing the common physical feature can but be the suggestion that technology for generating our power needs from the hidden underworld of space has to be possible. Accordingly, I will now outline what I see as the basis on which to build the ultimate power generating device that harnesses the physical principles presented in Message No. 1.

Being 78 years of age and no longer having access to university research laboratory facilities, I can but leave it to others to take note and, hopefully, prove me right. If proved right then the world will benefit and the impending energy crisis will be avoided. Hopefully also, the scientific community might then be willing to accept my claim as to how the quantum underworld deploys its energy into proton creation and is active in producing the phenomenon of gravitation. I know of no other theory that has been able to derive theoretically the value 1836.152 of the proton/electron mass ratio. I would like to see that recognized as my contribution to man’s knowledge.

Consider a capacitor formed by a pair of concentric cyindrical electrodes, something many of us remember from the school physics laboratory, the Leyden jar. However, the capacitor structure I have in mind is very much larger and has to be operated at a quite high voltage. When that voltage is applied between the electrodes electric charge is displaced in the underlying vacuum medium located between those electrodes. A commensurate amount of electric charge is thereby held in place on those electrodes, a negative polarity charge on one and a positive polarity charge on the other. Given my claim that this is accompanied by ‘vacuum spin’, aether rotation, which has imported an equal amount of energy owing to a quantum phase-lock as between the charge of the vacuum medium, we have the energy gain we seek to exploit.

The problem, however, is that, with this simple capacitor configuration, the only control parameter available is the reduction of the voltage between the electrodes. This will shed energy within the circuit of the apparatus used, the outflow of electric charge at the voltage difference merely delivering energy equal to that originally supplied by our voltage source. The added energy imported from space is merely dispersed by the ‘vacuum spin’ slowing down but expanding beyond the bounds of the capacitor electrodes as it conserves its angular momentum. The energy imported from the quantum underworld of space has no way of enhancing the energy output of the capacitor circuit and so is left to dissipate itself and eventually be reabsorbed by that quantum underworld that pervades all space.

However, now consider a concentric electrode capacitor having a third cylindrical electrode intermediate the inner and outer electrodes. Here we have a control parameter other than the voltage between the outermost and innermost electrodes, because we can wonder about the voltage of the central electrode whilst retaining the other voltage difference at a constant high level. In fact, by keeping the latter voltage difference constant but varying the voltage of the intermediate electrode we can decrease the capacitor energy of one half of the overall capacitor as that of the other half decreases. The imported energy shed by one half of the overall capacitor can then contribute to the action that energizes the other half and thereby induce oscillations from which energy can be extracted and deployed as a power source.

One needs two such capacitors having their central electrodes coupled through a load circuit in order to capture the ‘free energy’ inflow and get it to do useful work rather than being dissipated. An inductance in the coupling circuit can determine the oscillation frequency and, since the energy inflow increases with frequency, this should no doubt be well into the kilocycle region. The figure below is a simple schematic diagram of the electrical apparatus that I have in mind.

So my Message No. 3 is what I may describe as a ‘thought experiment’, one that I cannot verify myself, owing to my age and lack of facilities. I therefore can but record my thoughts and hope that others will prove me right and not wrong.

The capacitors depicted in the figure should have their electrodes spaced so that the capacitance C as between their central and outermost electrodes is the same as the capacitance C between their central and innermost electrodes. Suppose that the outermost electrodes are maintained at a voltage of 20,000V relative to the innermost electrodes. This means that the two central electrodes will be at an intermediate voltage which we expect to be 10,000V in the absence of oscillations.
However, as with any ever-active electrical system, there will be minor voltage fluctuations affecting the central electrodes. So we may ask what happens if the voltage of the central electrode of capacitor A decreases owing to electric charge being shed by the inner capacitance C but gained by the outer capacitance C. Think about that for a moment. You will see that it implies reciprocal action in the opposite sense by capacitor B, as current flows from A to B via the central inductor coupling. Yet no net current flows from the 20,000V power source.

Now, of course, common sense backed by our scientific training assures us that this system can but keep its equilibrium without those minor voltage fluctuations building up in some way. Yet, if we heed Message No. 1 and keep in mind Message No. 2, there is a question we must ask. If current does flow through that central link between A and B, one half of A and one half of B both shed energy and so release the imported ‘vacuum spin’ energy, if such is present. This occurs as other halves of A and B have to gain energy and as angular momentum of the imported ‘spin energy’ spreads into the other sections of the capacitors. The question then is: “Does that imported energy escape, as it does for the two-electrode capacitor configuration, or might it be retained and so augment the action?”

I submit the answer can only be provided by actual experiment. If the energy does escape then there is nothing further to discusss. However, if some of that energy is captured then we can expect an escalation of oscillations in that inductive link and so can then say that a new source of energy has been discovered. Those oscillations will be a function of the capacitance C and the inductance of the load circuit. Given a high frequency and a high voltage a significant level of power per unit volume of capacitor structure will be produced. If power output at a level commensurate with the claims of Tesla, Moray, Meyer and Baumann results the world’s energy future is then assured. A pollution-free energy resource powered by the quantum underworld of space will be at hand wherever we are on body Earth.

Harold Aspden, 19th March 2006

This website offers an insight into the science of space, energy and creation and the related technological consequences affecting our future environment.

This tree of knowledge is rooted in the aether and has three branches:
For the general reader there is an introductory overview; a fascinating account of the mysteries of physical science.

For the physicist there is a comprehensive reinterpretation of what has been misconceived.

For the technologist there is the challenge of gaining access to the non-polluting energy resource of the space medium.

• This is not a commercial website. It is an educational site operated in U.K. on a non-profit basis by Energy Science Ltd. under the direction of Dr. Harold Aspden, who in his retirement years provides the financial support needed to sustain this venture. Dr. Aspden acknowledges his gratitude to the Internet facility for providing the means to tell the world about his lifelong exploration of the unseen sea of energy that we inhabit in ignorance of its overwhelming power.

The URL of these Internet Web pages is:

http://www.energyscience.org.uk

This website offers an insight into the science of space, energy and creation and the related technological consequences affecting our future environment.

This tree of knowledge is rooted in the aether and has three branches:
For the general reader there is an introductory overview; a fascinating account of the mysteries of physical science.

For the physicist there is a comprehensive reinterpretation of what has been misconceived.

For the technologist there is the challenge of gaining access to the non-polluting energy resource of the space medium.

• This is not a commercial website. It is an educational site operated in U.K. on a non-profit basis by Energy Science Ltd. under the direction of Dr. Harold Aspden, who in his retirement years provides the financial support needed to sustain this venture. Dr. Aspden acknowledges his gratitude to the Internet facility for providing the means to tell the world about his lifelong exploration of the unseen sea of energy that we inhabit in ignorance of its overwhelming power.

The URL of these Internet Web pages is:

http://www.energyscience.org.uk

The starting point in the whole of my research has been the subject of electrodynamics and its energy anomalies, by which I mean the experimental anomalies and not the paradoxical notions that beset the theory of the subject.

I have found repeatedly, from my attempts to write about such matters, that referees of physics journals delight in pointing to the success of quantum electrodynamics in explaining the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. They claim such precision in their calculations that is so overwhelming that surely only a fool would dare to think that, by contemplating an aether, there may be a better and easier way of going about that task.

So, having discovered the easy alternative, I delved into that wonderful world of QED to see how its magic derived a theoretical value for the g/2 factor of the electron which measurement shows as being 1.001159652193(10). This is the value adopted in consultation with the CODATA Task Group in 1986 and as made available to scientists in U.K. by a pocket chart published by The Royal Society jointly with other learned bodies. The numerical value just quoted is stated to be the magnetic moment of the electron in terms of the Bohr magneton.

I saw that a book entitled Introduction to Gauge Field Theory had been authored by Bailin and Love and published in 1986 under the auspices of the Institute of Physics in U.K. and that the promotion literature specifically declared that it provided ‘a detailed treatment of quantum electrodynamics’. I bought that book with the express purpose of seeing exactly how those who really understand QED actually obtain the wonderfully precise number that one understands fits so well with the value measured.

In a browsing mood, I first opened the book on page 214 and was pleased to see that chapter 14 began with the words: “The spectacular success of quantum electrodynamics (QED) in calculating the Lamb shift and the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the muon …”. Yes, that statement meant that what I was looking for would be found in the earlier chapters of the book. After all, here was a book on that very subject.

I found the relevant section heading on page 140: ‘The electron anomalous magnetic moment’. The opening words were: “In this section, we specialise to the case of QED (Abelion gauge theory) and derive the electron anomalous magnetic moment. For convenience we shall work in the Feynman gauge…”

I was expecting then to see the analysis develop to the derivation of something very close to that 1.001159652193(10) number recited above, but, to my horror, the derivation ended on page 142 with the words:

“Thus the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron is:

(α)/2π)(e/2m).”

Alpha, α, is a fundamental constant in atomic physics, the fine-structure constant. I knew that this was only the first-order determination, α/2π) being the reciprocal of 2π(137.036), which is 0.0011614. Evidently the ‘spectacular success’ was not something I could verify by guidance from that book. I was expected to accept that QED was a ‘spectacular success’ but it was something I had to take on trust without knowing what assumptions were made in the onward iterations of the calculation.

The book was, of course, full of equations, each one following the other and so conveying the impression of being ‘a tight logical structure’ but when the crunch came and a numerical result should have emerged I had to be satisfied with the above first-order approximation formula.

From my academic background in engineering I had always judged the result of a ‘tight logical structure’ on the end result, by comparing the numerical value derived with that observed as an actual experimental result.

I am now going to make the outrageous statement that QED is so powerful a technique that it is like taking a power-driven sledgehammer to crack a nut or, may I say, like using the method of Professor Andrew Wiles to prove Fermat’s Last Theorem. There just has to be an easier way to explain how Nature determines that anomalous magnetic moment!

A back-of-an-envelope type of calculation can do better than that QED result presented in the book by Bailin and Love. All that is meant by the anomaly of the electron magnetic moment is that the antics of an electron in motion cannot bring to bear the electric energy in the far field zone fast enough to affect its inertia when in orbit having a very restricted radius. There is a cut-off range connected with the electron’s Compton wavelength and only the electric field energy within that range contributes to the electron’s inertia in its state of minor orbital motion.

This may be an engineer’s way of looking at the problem, but it is a realistic approach, just as that artillery officer I mentioned earlier would expect to be able to turn his field gun without swinging something around in far off space.

If what I have said above about the moving atom and its problems in collecting energy spread over its electromagnetic field is ‘phantasy’, then so the world of QED is phantasy of an extreme kind, because that goes even further by involving us in the problems of photon-electron interactions and something called ‘normalization’ to avoid infinities but which amounts to the ‘cut-off’ range just mentioned.

So, I sit, in my aging years, watching the world of physics evolve its ‘tight logical structure’ and wonder if that world will ever look up my paper, reference [61] in the bibliography, (‘Fundamental Constants derived from Two-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillations in an Electrically-Structured Vacuum’, Speculations in Science and Technology, v. 9, 315-323 (1986).

That paper shows, in a few pages, how the electron’s g/2-factor, can be explained with at least the same precision that is claimed for QED.

The formula is:

Here, N is determined as the nearest prime number to the value 3π/2α. Since α^-1 is just a little above 137, N is 647. Table I below is reproduced from that referenced paper to show how g/2 depends upon the value of α^-1.

Now, that paper [61] was received by the publishing journal in November 1985 and at that time I, the author, was completely unaware of the prospect that the CODATA values to be adopted later in 1986 would establish 1.001159652193(10) as the g/2-factor of the electron. Nor did I imagine that the α^-1 value adopted would be 137.0359895(61).

What must then be absolutely clear to anyone reading this is the fact that if QED is a ‘spectacularly successful’ theory because it provides something very close to this relationship between the fine-structure constant and the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, then it cannot be any closer than the value derived above using my very simple formula with N as 647.

What I offer, however, is a ‘back-of-the-envelope’ type of analysis for deducing that formula, whereas the eighth-order calculation based on numerous, indeed thousands of, Feynman diagrams as well as arbitrary hadronic involvements, as needed to get a close QED value, is a task that could well keep the reader fully occupied for several years. That assumes the reader has very advanced skills in the relevant mathematics, skills far in excess of the school-level training which suffices to understand my method.

As is well known, the electron exhibits a characteristic wave frequency, which is the Compton electron frequency ν_c. This is the frequency of the photon corresponding to the mass-energy of an electron at rest. Now, although Einstein may have said that the idea that something can be at ‘rest’ is meaningless, I do not accept that. You see, it is a question of deciding whether each electron in the universe is a law unto itself so far as external governing influences are concerned, or whether it is regulated by external influence. I can assure you that that Compton electron frequency is a universal regulating rhythm that beats the time and all electrons have to dance to that time. They are not free to wander, each having its own proper time, much as Einstein might have wished that to be the case! If you have read in books about ‘time’ that there is no such thing as ‘universal time’ then you have exposed yourself to a ‘brainwashing’ exercise conducted by devil authors who preach the Einstein doctrine but contribute nothing to the science which sustains technological progress.

My method involves an energy cut-off range determined by a wave resonance in the near-field zone of the electron as shown in Fig. 1. The length of the radial lines in the outer cavity is half the Compton wavelength of the electron, because the field oscillations are phase-locked by the charge polarity condition. The length of the radial lines in the inner core of the electron charge is approximately the electron charge radius a and represents a standing wave condition of much higher frequency.

Now, the electron itself is a form of energy compressed into a field and we can calculate how that energy is distributed. J. J. Thomson did that calculation in the 19th century to find that, in electrostatic units, the energy e²/2a was seated outside the charge radius a. However, he discovered from the study of how electron mass increased with speed, even tending to become infinite as the speed of light was approached, that the effective rest mass of the electron was 2e²/3ac².

This meant that, if the electron were hollow within the radius a, then we could write the energy E as being 3Mc²/4. However, even before Einstein came into the picture in 1905, the Cambridge cosmologist, the James Jeans already mentioned had, in his early years before being knighted, explained that mass and energy are equivalent and had argued that matter could be annihilated to produce radiant energy. He saw this as being the energy source feeding the sun and all other stars.

It is a simple exercise to work out that if the pressure of the electron field at the radius a is the same within the body of the electron, meaning that the charge e has an appropriate distribution conforming with this condition, then the speed of propagation of wave disturbances in the electron charge itself has the value c and that the electric energy inside that radius is e²/6a. So, you see, the net result is an electron of energy 2e²/3a giving a relationship between energy and mass that we can write as E=Mc².

Much of this was accepted physics before Einstein appeared on the scene and was known as ‘electron theory’, so it is very hard to understand how modern physicists can write that history off as if it never happened!

For our immediate purpose, we have now the basis for studying the coordinated wave interaction as between that external influence at the Compton electron frequency and the wavelengths associated with that radius parameter a of the electron.

Looking now at Fig. 1, ask yourself how the world outside the electron might interface with the world inside the core charge of the electron. If you think of pressure from the viewpoint of a gas then the interface is just a pressure interface and there is not much to say. However, a gas comprises numerous particles all moving in different directions. There are three degrees of freedom. However, inside that electron it may be that there are not numerous component particles behaving as a gas and moving with those three degrees of freedom. There could be an oscillation that has only one degree of freedom, amounting in its overall effect to a radial oscillation within the radius a. I emphasize here that I have no special insight into what goes on inside an electron. I can only make tentative assumptions and reason on that basis to see how what develops compares with what we see and measure in our experiments. So, I trust you are following the gist of my argument, because I am coming to the point that between the sphere of radius a and the sphere interfacing with those Compton frequency oscillations there is an adjustment at constant pressure in going from one degree of freedom to three degrees of freedom.

What this amounts to is that the surface area of that intermediate interface will be three times the surface area of the inner interface. In short, the outer interface radius will be 3a, subject, however, to a little ‘tuning’.

Now, if this seems a little speculative, there is an alternative approach giving the equivalent result. Look again at Fig. 1 and imagine both the radial oscillations within the core charge of the electron and in the cavity excited at the Compton electron frequency as setting up standing wave antinodes needing to balance those of travelling waves progressing by reflection around a circuit within the middle cavity. You will see that the three-wave interface at the charge surface requires a 120^o angular separation. The geometry of this system also requires the outer radius to be 3a.

A vital consideration is that point made earlier as to what it is that tells an electron that it is a negative charge or a positive charge. I do not want to dwell too long on this point so I will simply explain that it is all a question of how those the two frequency modes of oscillation beat together. Undoubtedly, as those who may study the history of aether theory may discover, the answer lies in developing the concepts of C. A. Bjerknes of the period 1877 to 1910 as already mentioned. Positive and negative are states involving oscillations in antiphase, all positive charges sharing a common phase and all negative charges sharing a common phase, but I leave that research to others. Suffice it here to say that the phase of oscillation is important. The Compton electron wavelength has to blend with the wavelength 2a, as the reader can work out from the diagram in Fig. 1.

The ratio of these wavelengths has to be an odd integer that cannot be factorized as that would allow the phase of the electron oscillations to have optional values in relation to the regulating universal rhythm of the Compton frequency oscillations. All positive electron charges have the same phase and all negative electron charges have the same phase but positive and negative charges are different because they are in antiphase.

This is the secret of the meaning of electrical charge polarity. It is just a question of phase, but there is phase-lock ensuring that there are no maverick charges in the electron family. There are only electrons or their positive versions, the positrons.

It is on this basis that there is a constraint on the adoption of the distance parameter a as a wavelength. The wavelength λ_c assumed by the resonant oscillation within the electron has to ensure that:

where N is a prime number.

Now, from what has been said above, it can be seen that, since a without this constraint is given by 2e²/3hf_c, hf_c being the rest-mass energy of the electron and the Compton wavelength λ_c being c/f_c, we can write:

approximately.

From these two equations we find that N becomes the nearest prime integer to 3π(137)/2, bearing in mind that α, which is 2πe²/hc, is approximately 1/137. This gives N, uniquely, as 647.

The formula on page 49 is then easily explained because the field energy of the electron disposed outside the cut-off radius R is simply e²/2R and R is simply (λ_c/2)(1+(3)/647). Using the formula:

where m is the normal rest mass of the electron, and also the fact that λ_c is h/mc, it then needs a little algebra to find the residual electron energy thereby effective in confined orbital states of motion. This allows us to determine its ratio to the normal energy applicable for translational motion but one then arrives at the result presented in Table I above.

One cannot build on Einstein’s foundations but one can at least take stock of Eddington’s efforts and proceed from there. Eddington had the good sense to see that the clues which Nature provided to guide us forward in our search for the truth were those coded in the dimensionless numbers which link the truly fundamental constants. We will, very briefly, review that theme as it provides the platform on which much of the work here described was structured.

Sir Arthur Eddington in New Pathways in Science (see p. 232), published in 1935 by Cambridge University Press, declared that the seven primitive constants of physics, e, m, M, h, c, G and λ, could be reduced to three (cf. the three dimensions E, L, T) by discovering what determines the value of four purely numerical ratios:

(i) M/m (ii) hc/2πe² (iii) e²/GMm (iv) (2πc/h)(Mm/λ)

Eddington’s own thoughts on how to derive these ratios theoretically have not stood the test of time. He relied too much on what were apparently numerical coincidences and his theory could not adapt to later data found as precision measurement techniques improved. In contrast the theory which I present in the appended papers stands up extremely well, as can be expected for a theory that has really hit upon the truths of Nature’s creative mechanisms.

As summarized below, the appended papers cover the first three of Eddington’s ratios, but the cosmical constant λ has a curious definition and may prove to have no real significance owing to the vagueness of the natural radius of curvature of space-time’. I would substitute the Hubble constant as the seventh primitive constant and I point out that this also can be deduced theoretically by developing the particle creation theme leading to the M/m evaluation. [Lett. Nuovo Cimento, 41, 252, 1984].

The Hubble constant arises owing to an action occurring throughout space as the aether attempts to create matter in the form of protons and electrons, but succeeds sporadically and then usually only transiently as the particles have a momentary existence. What amounts to ‘missing matter’ results in that this quasi-matter exists fleetingly thoughout all space and its very presence attenuates the frequency of electromagnetic waves in transit from the stars. The aether has a non-dispersive property in this connection, because it really has two dynamic systems which keep in balance in a rather special way, as discussed in the paper just referenced.

My objective in this work is not to be drawn into contention with Big Bang theory. I prefer here to avoid the field which cosmologists find so delightful, as they harness Einstein’s philosophy to describe events they can only imagine. Enough is said on that subject on page 30 ahead and in the papers at the end of this work. Instead I intend here to concentrate attention more upon the first three of Eddington’s ratios.

The way in which protons can be created from activity involving muons is the subject of three papers, two of which are appended. [Nuovo Cimento, 30A, 235, 1975, Hadronic Journal, 11, 169, 1988 and Physics Essays, 1, 72, 1988]. The very close value 1836.152 of M/m, the proton/electron mass ratio, is derived theoretically but its ‘fine-tuning’ to even greater precision in terms of a fundamental energy quantum can become an interesting possibility in the light of our introduction.

The theoretical derivation of the dimensionless fine-structure constant giving hc/2πe² as 137.0359 is also of published record, as based on the same theoretical principles, which involve an adaptive ‘fluid crystal’ interpretation of the structured form of the aether. [Physics Letters, 41A, 423, 1972]. However, the summary derivation of this ratio also features in the papers appended.

This author’s unification of gravitational and electrical action implicit in the third of Eddington’s ratios is already of published record and affords the formulae:

G = (4πe/m)g⁴(108π)³

M/m is the proton/electron mass ratio. τ is the mass of the tau lepton in relation to the electron. [Hadronic Journal, 9, 153, 1986].

The reader is invited to substitute the measured values of the electron charge to mass ratio e/m and the measured value of the proton-electron mass ratio in these equations to deduce τ and then g, the graviton-electron mass ratio, to then discover that the equations really do give the correct value of G, the constant of gravitation. Clearly, the numerical ratio e²/GMm has therefore been deduced theoretically, meeting fully the objective set by Sir Arthur Eddington.

However, there is a spin-off discovery here, because this theory has yielded a measure of the mass of the tau lepton, otherwise known as the taon. Inspection of the tables of data applicable to physical constants will show that this super-heavy electron, the taon, is the big brother in the electron family, the muon being the middle brother, otherwise known as the heavy electron.

Now, I cannot, in the limited extent of this work, discuss all my published papers, but I know that there will be those who are ready to criticize what I am saying and they may pounce on the fact that the taon-electron mass ratio calculated from the above equations, using M/m as 1836.152, is 3485.21, which is a taon mass-energy of 1780.94 MeV. As can be seen from that 1986 paper of mine, just referenced (the third in the papers appended), I was, at the time that paper was written, confronting the prospect of this taon mass-energy quantity being higher than my theory indicated. In the event, referring to Physical Review D50 (August 1994), I find that the taon is now stated to have a mass-energy of 1777.1 MeV with an uncertainty of approximately 0.5 MeV.

So I am in error somewhat on this question of the mass of the super-heavy electron. However, as can be seen from the papers ahead I had a similar situation with the muon, in that my theory said that the muon-electron mass ratio should be 206.3329, whereas the actual muon-electron mass ratio is somewhat greater as 206.7683. The reason for this was fully explained as attributable to the real muon having two electron-sized companions. It needs three particles cooperating in a conservative manner, in space volume terms and energy terms, to assure a quasi-stability. [Lett. Nuovo Cimento, 37, 210 (1983) and 38, 342 (1983)].

In the sub-quantum energy activity in the aether the primary role is played by the virtual muon family which comprises a mixture of energy quanta of 205 and 207 electron rest-mass units . We find that the real muon, the one which shows itself in cosmic radiation and in high energy particle decay, is nucleated by the higher 207 form.

Now I have, above, mentioned the ‘harmonics of the primes’, having in mind the wave resonances and standing wave effects that can control the deployment of energy in particle groups. Such effects have been recognized in my researches in connection with the proton and neutral pion, as mentioned below. Also, in 1972, I had adopted the odd integer space volume quantization to derive the fine-structure constant [Physics Letters, 41A, 423 (1972)]. Later, the evidence pointed to the wave resonance as well, so that in 1983 I did explain why the ‘aether’ muon or ‘virtual’ muon, being a bare muon, had a mass slightly below that of the real muon, the one having a electron retinue. Referenced on the integer mass ratio 207, the applicable formula, to a first approximation is:

mµ/m = 207 + 2 – (9/4)(207)/(207+3)

which is 206.7687. The second Lett. Nuovo Cimento paper referenced above gave reason for ‘tuning’ this to a slightly lower value, bringing it into perfect accord with the measured value of 206.7683.

What I now declare as being extra proof and vindication of my research in arguing in support of the wave resonances just mentioned, is the fact that the real taon should replicate the muon situation by having a retinue of two virtual muons, whereas the muon had a retinue of two virtual leptons of electron size. The number 207 can be replaced by 17, at least to a first approximation, because the taon is that much more massive than the muon. Accordingly 17 can replace 207 in the above equation to give:

mτ/mµ= 17 + 2 – (9/4)(17)/(17+3)

which is 4.43 Mev below the value of mτ corresponding to the factor 17, if mµ/m is 207. So the 1780.94 MeV estimate of the virtual taon mass indicates a `real’ taon mass of 1776.51 MeV, whereas the value, as now reported, is 1777.1 +/- 0.5 Mev.

Whilst on this theme of wave resonance governing particle mass, I feel it appropriate to mention the harmonic resonance which determined the value of the neutral pion mass. As can be seen by reference to the eleventh appended paper [Physics Essays, 2, 360 (1989)], in determining the mass of the neutral pion in relation to that of the electron, a governing resonance involves the prime number 1619.

When I wrote that paper I did not know that the neutral pion had a measured mass-energy of 134.9764 +/- 0.0006 MeV. Yet, in presenting the paper I gave reason for this mass-energy being either 134.976 MeV or 134.960 Mev, according to whether the component charges involved are well spaced apart or are in contact. Evidently, experiment tells us that they are well-spaced, but here is a very good example of the power of my theory.

The neutral pion is not foremost in importance amongst the many fundamental particles, but it does present an awesome example of the wave resonance effect. As scrunity of Table II in the paper will show, it would really upset the resonance proposition if the mass indicated was not in agreement with experiment, but it is pleasing to see that my theory is supported in a truly remarkable way. I just hope that the reader can come to appreciate what I am saying and so share my enjoyment at having deciphered the physics of Nature’s handiwork in this particular particle situation.

As to the ‘harmonics of the primes’, the best example in the papers appended is the seventh appended paper [Hadronic Journal, 11, 169 (1988)]. The numbers 23, 41 and 1153 are all prime. They relate to the properties of the proton and I can but declare my delight at having deciphered the secrets of the proton as codified in the limited but highly precise numerical data which those highly skilled in precision measurement have afforded.

Sir Arthur Eddington could not have imagined what would prove to be possible once the quantities in which he was interested had been measured to a precision below the part per million level. The numbers do not explain anything, but as they extend in their limits of precision they make the task of explanation all the more formidable. It is only if one has the right interpretation of them in physical terms that one can hope to derive theoretical values which match up to those observed. However, once on track, one knows one has discovered the governing truths and it certainly gives one confidence in spreading the theoretical investigation across the myriad of particle forms that Nature produces.

How else can it be that the substance of the papers which are appended could have emerged so readily? One cannot sit down and `invent’ realistic physical ways of deciphering the particle spectrum, just by willful determination. One can, however, if given one point of entry that is well-founded, build on that and hope to find that it does, of itself, build a particle spectrum that fits the one observed. This has proved to be the case. It has not involved use of Einstein’s theory, which tells us something we should not fail to heed, but that was not how I entered into these studies.

In simple truth, I wanted to understand how energy was stored by magnetic induction and I did not believe that the route to that understanding could in any way ignore the reality of the presence of the aether. To me, mathematical symbols, though useful if one can picture something tangible that they represent, are meaningless if devoid of substantive reality. The aether is real and it deserves respect!